Byzantium is short for the Byzantine Empire

Byzantium is short for the Byzantine Empire. It can also be used to refer to the capital city of the Roman Empire, later renamed Constantinople after Emperor Constantine who rebuilt the city into a modern capital of Christianity at the time. Byzantine was heavily influenced by Greece and the Greek culture. With that came the Greek mythical gods and icon culture representing ones religious beliefs. Constantinople also became the seat of the pope of the Catholic Church (â€Å"History of the Byzantine Empire†).Icons can be defined as representations of deities, saints or sacred scenes such as the crucifixion of Christ. In the Byzantine Empire these were very popular and were made from any medium including gemstones, wood, stone, marble, enamel, precious metal, and mosaic. Additionally, they ranged in size from small to huge and were even painted on walls as murals (Brookes). It was believed that these icons would bring success in battle and were often carried when troops were goi ng to war. They were also believed to bring healing to the sick and good fortune.By being in contact with the icons, it was said that one was able to directly communicate with the deity or saint represented by the icon (Brookes). As the culture of creating icons grew, it began to clash with the teachings of Christianity which had taken root as a major religion in the Byzantine Empire. The first commandment in the 10 commandments given to Moses clearly stated that there should be no graven images made as this would make the people prone to the worship of idols. As such, iconoclasm took root. The term iconoclasm means ‘image breaker’ which referred to the habit of breaking images for political or religious reasons.In ancient times, if a ruler was conquered by another, any image of that ruler was quickly broken by their successor or conqueror, hence the term. In Byzantium, iconoclasm referred to a theological debate that spanned about a century between the state and the ch urch (Brookes). As Christianity grew, the creation of icons was barred by the state and the cross was promoted as the only representation of the church. The main motivation for this was so the people would stop looking to the icons as the source of their healing, good fortune and success and start looking to Christ and by so doing discourage veneration of the icons.The issues surrounding the icons were that whereas one faction saw the icons as a representation of their faith and salvation, the other group saw them as mere idols. Their argument being that the only representation of Christ given to the church was the holy Eucharist, or Holy Communion (Trakakis). The iconoclast found a dilemma in the icons in that an image of Christ was supposed to capture the humanity of Christ without taking away the divinity. However, the Godhead could not very well be represented by an image of Christ.The Iconophile, saw it as not trying to capture the divinity or humanity of Christ but the person of Christ, which then tied the human and divine together. To the Iconophile, the fact that Christ had come in a human body made a depiction of him possible. Therefore whereas Iconoclasts were bent on depicting the spirit as superior to matter, the Iconophile so the created matter as a perfect means to see God in the created matter thus deifying the said matter. This became the crux of the controversy (Trakakis).Procopius’ book â€Å"Secret History† had been hidden for centuries until it was discovered in the Vatican library and printed in 1623 AD (Glenn). Procopius was a famous historian in the time that Justinian ruled Byzantium. Having written other texts on the Roman Empire in the 6th century, he wrote this secret book that gave the details of how Justinian and his wife Theodora a former courtesan plundered Rome and murdered millions of people. Justinian is said to have forced people into the Christian faith, while his actions remained decidedly contrary to its teac hings.He and Theodora made people pay for Justice, belittled their needs and robbed Roman citizens of their property and money. Justinian would side with priests who stole and murdered and even took property from citizens to give to the church thinking that he would have favor with God for doing so (Altwater) This book is significant because it reveals a different side of the history of Byzantium in the time of Justinian, unlike the official annals of history written for the empire. In the Byzantine Empire, Pagan art was seen as leading people to false gods. It was mainly based on the polytheistic Greek gods and was figural.As such, it was shunned by the growing Christian population. Due to the iconoclasm controversy, much of the art of the Byzantine Empire did not reflect one figural scene to avoid the said controversy. Because of the persecution that followed Christians who supported icons, Byzantine religious art shrunk to focus mainly on the cross and symbolic birds and plants ( â€Å"The Byzantine Empire†). The Byzantine Empire is an intriguing time with tales like no other. Ranging from the amphitheaters to the arena where offenders where crucified to death or torn to pieces by wild animals.The religious mix was no less intriguing and the rise of Christianity in the Byzantine Empire brought with it many controversies. Justinian became an enforcer of Christianity in the empire causing its spread, but at the same time going against the tenets of the faith according to the ‘Secret History’ by Procopius. Additionally, because of the first of the Ten Commandments, there arose a controversy as to whether icons were graven images, which were forbidden, or not. This in turn affected the way the people of Byzantium perceived pagan art, which was mainly based on pagan gods, goddesses and symbols.As such, Byzantine religious art was narrowed down to include the cross and other symbols that bespoke Christianity without compelling veneration. Works Cited Atwater, Richard. â€Å"Procopius of Caeasrea: The Secret History. † Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1961. 10 Mar. 2009 Brooks, Sarah. â€Å"Icons and Iconoclasm in Byzantium†. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000. 10 Mar. 2009 Glenn, Joshua.â€Å"A Brief History of Secret Histories. † 2008. 10 Mar. 2009 â€Å"History of the Byzantine Empire. † 24 Feb. 2009. 10 Mar. 2009 â€Å"The Byzantine Empire: The Roman-Byzantine Period. † 10 Mar. 2009 Trakakis, Nick. â€Å"What was the Iconoclast Controversy About? † Theandros. 2 vols. 2004-2005. 10 Mar. 2009

Prison Reform Essay

Three inmates could be released from prison today. Two of them will end up right back in the system within three years. This statistic should be enough to conclude that America’s prison systems are failing miserably with the rehabilitation of inmates. How is it plausible for every correctional facility to think isolation, segregation, and overcrowding could possibly benefit the crime rate? Instead of converting these inmates into proper citizens, the system has found ways to hold them down. To suppress their inspiration to change. For many inmates, those bars do not only imprison their bodies, but their motivation and determination as well. US prisons are breeding grounds for violence. These places are supposed to reform inmates into law abiding people. Instead, they turn even the harmless criminals into the most violent ones. One man is sentenced to one year due to drug trafficking. Another man is sentenced to life without parole for several brutal murders. Despite the different levels of their crimes, they could possibly be bunked together in the same cell. This right here is a prime example of what the DOC will do to hold an inmate down. By involving non-violent criminals with heinous ones, they are creating a situation of fear and defense. The man who is in for excruciating violent behavior could easily try to hurt his cell mate. He has nothing to lose. Is the man with minor charges expected to not defend himself? No. That’s where the violence sets in. When you mix completely different criminals together on purpose, there is going to be an outbreak of violence. Everybody has those weeks where you just feel like you need to get out of the house. As if staying home doing nothing one more day would just make you rip your hair out. Imagine having to do that for anywhere up to six months or longer. Not just in a wide open house, but in a small, confined cell. No human contact, nothing to keep you busy, sometimes even going hours wi thout food. This happens daily in the American prison systems. Solitary confinement has been a method used for years in the US. Such isolation can take a huge toll on anybody’s mental stability. Often these inmates are thrown into a single cell, and basically forgotten about. These prisoners are treated like dogs instead of human beings. Do these officers realize that each one of those men have someone who cares about them? For every inmate in that facility there is someone who loves them. Another flaw of the DOC is the hiring process of correctional staff. I have a great deal of thanks for those who  have put their safety on the line to control inmates. However, I also believe they have much to do with the violent outbreaks. For some officers, this position is like a power trip. While there are many honorable officers, you can tell they love the future of the inmates riding in their hands. I have witnessed first hand CO’s getting inmates all wired up knowing the inmate will get themselves in trouble. Often these officers act just as childish as the prisoners! The only difference is the uniforms they’re wearing. The requirements to become a correctional officer is to provide security and to enforce the rules, not to contribute to the chaos! As a new inmate entering the system, there is one factor that everybody recognizes about you†¦The color of your skin. Instead of providing a place where segregation is at a minimum, prisons all across America are dealing with gang violence and race issues. These issues are known as â€Å"Prison Politics† to some. No matter who you are, or where you’re from, when entering prison you become identified by your skin tone. The level of gangs and cultural groups are so high, that often inmates have no choice but to follow the crowd. Sure, they could choose not to cooperate in the gang life, but where does that leave them? Then they will become the targets with no defense. The pressure to become accepted is so important in prison survival, that some inmates will throw away their moral s just to protect themselves. Prison officials often condone the promotion of racial segregation. If one person of a specific race was found suspicious, they have the right to lock down every person of the same nationality. They often bunk same races together to cut down the risk of altercations. This is probably for the best at the time being, but it makes you wonder why they don’t attempt to do something about gang involvement. You hear about classes on drug intervention, schooling, and religion. Why don’t they have a class on racial acceptance? I’m sure it wouldn’t convert the beliefs of many inmates, but it would at least show some effort to bring down the segregation rate. The release of an inmate should be one of the most exciting moments of their lives. It should be a time where they finally get to put all of the knowledge and inspiration they have gained to use. It should be a new stepping stone for them to create a new lifestyle without their past lagging behind them. Sadly, this is hardly ever how it works out. In the past generation, the process of parole and release has started lacking structure. It is very rare that an inmate is  individually prepared to face the real world. Instead of carefully considering ways to provide help upon release, they often just let them go on their own with no support from the inside. I understand these are grown adults, but when you are facilitated for so long, there is a need for preparation for the outside world. When these inmates are faced with the outside realities all at once, they just go back to their old ways. They are not given the support they need to make it through life on their own. These prisons confine these inmates for years, harboring their every move. Yet when they are released, they do not help them along one bit. Something is obviously wrong here. The prison system has a long way to go before it becomes effective. More people need to start paying attention to these correctional departments. The cause seems so minuscule until someone you love becomes the victim. These prisons are inhumane, chaotic, and lacking necessary resources. Until prison systems of America reach a solid stability of rehabilitation, the inmates will continue to involve themselves in crime. These places should be for improvement, not corruption.

Evaluate strategies which may be used by businesses Essay

Evaluate strategies which may be used by businesses and governments to improve the competitiveness of a country’s goods and services. Competitiveness is the ability of a firm or a nation to offer goods and services that meet the quality standards of the local people and world markets at prices that are competitive and provide adequate returns on the resources employed or consumed in producing them. Governments have an important role for improving the competitiveness of their country’s goods and services. Governments are able to change regulations and taxes according to what they believe about their country’s state of economy. For example, a government may decide to decrease the corporation tax in order to improve the competitiveness of a country’s goods and services. A decrease in the corporation tax will encourage new firms to set up and existing firms to invest. Corporation tax is a levy placed on the profit of a firm with different rates used for different levels or profits. They are taxes against profits earned by businesses during a given taxable period. If there is a decrease in the corporation tax, it means that firms will have an increased retained profit since less money goes to the government revenue. This will allow firms to use this money to improve competitiveness. More spending on investment will be possible which will increase productivity. If the firms invest on capital goods such as machinery that will benefit the firm by producing at lower cost, then the firm might able to set lower prices in order to improve price-competitiveness. For example the UK government reduced the headline corporation tax rate from 30% to 28% in 2007 Budget. Reducing corporation tax increased the retained profits for UK firms that can plough back into investment projects. This should help to boost the UK capital stock. It should also help the UK to keep attracting foreign direct investment which improves the competitiveness furthermore since British firms may gain from the advanced technology and innovation of foreign multinationals. (Technology transfer) However, if the government decreases corporation tax, there might be some firms that decide to save the retained profits instead of spending on investment. This might be because there is a period of recession and firms might find it risky to invest. In addition many firms have chosen not to reinvest as they have been more concerned with making short term profits rather than investing in the future. If firms choose to save rather than invest their retained profits, a decrease in the corporation tax wouldn’t improve competitiveness. Another measure to improve competitiveness is to increase government spending on education and training. If the government can improve the quality of teaching in schools and universities and encourage more people to go to university, then this should lead to increase in productivity of the workforce in the future. Greater productivity will lead to greater efficiency in firms which will in turn lead to lower average costs of production. This may improve the price competitiveness of UK goods and services. In addition it would improve the non price competitiveness since a more educated workforce is likely to be able to be more creative and innovative. Greater innovation should lead to better quality products and the creation of patents, copyrights, brands etc. However, increased spending on education and training by the government does not always lead to increased global competitiveness. It will depend greatly on exactly how the money is spent. For example expenditure for improving school buildings or Ofsted inspections may not necessarily improve the effectiveness of the teachers and the quality of education. On the other hand spending on training teachers and advancing their professional development, might be a more effective means of improving educational standards in the future and increasing productivity. However even in this case the effects are not likely materialise until the longer term. Another way in which the government can improve the non price competitiveness and price competitiveness in international markets is to encourage innovation and research. Tax allowances have been made available to businesses spending on innovation and research. However, there has also been a variety of programmes which enable some businesses to gain grants for research and development R & D and to set up knowledge transfer networks and universities. Such measures are likely to be more successful than tax cats since firms are given incentives to research and development through receiving tax concessions and from making connection to universities where they have the opportunity to learn about the latest scientific and technological advancements. On the other hand businesses, are able to introduce a variety of measures to improve the competitiveness of the goods and services. These include increasing the level of investment on new technology, on staff training, on ICT, etc . One way by which businesses might improve the competitiveness of their goods or services is by increasing the spending on R & D. By increasing the spending on R & D, businesses will most probably benefit from product and process innovation. If a business manages to create a unique and different product than the rest products in the market, it would be able to compete much more easily since consumers will prefer to buy the most innovated and technological updated products. For example Steve Job’s firm, Apple spent $758 million on R&D during the first fiscal quarter of 2012. If we take Apple as an example which is one of the most profitable companies, we clearly see that it has benefited from the heavy spending on R & D. It has come up with products such as the iPhone where the sales reached the number of 98,144,000 in the first three quadrants of 2012. However, some businesses prefer not to spend on R & D because they do not think about the longer term. Also there are other firms that fail to spend on R & D. For example the procedure of R & D may result in no innovative products or procedures that will improve competitiveness and therefore. Another way, by which businesses might improve competitiveness, is by improving productivity. Productivity is the output per worker. There are different ways by which productivity can be improved. For example if the firms increase the wages, workers might be motivated to work harder. Also, training can improve the knowledge and skills of staff. Improved recruitment and selection may have the same effect which will increase productivity in the short term. If the business increases spending on training, workers will be more educated and informed about their job. This will increase the productivity since they will be able to produce more output at the same working hours and wages. If the productivity is increased, it means that more output will be produced at relatively the same costs. This will allow the firm to get bigger in size, lower the running and operational costs, increase income and gain a greater share of the market. This will increase both price and non-price competitiveness. However productivity doesn’t always improve competitiveness. For example if training isn’t done effectively, and workers do not give attention or really care about the job, then they won’t improve their knowledge and skills, training will not improve productivity, and therefore productivity will not improve competitiveness. In addition, productivity might not improve competitiveness because in the case of increasing the wages in relation of the output the worker producers, there are workers that wouldn’t be motivated by an increase in their salary and therefore will not produce a greater output. Productivity can be used as a measure to improve competitiveness only if it is used correctly and it can increase both price and non-price competitiveness. It can improve price competitiveness by allowing the businesses to set lower prices and improve non-price competitiveness by expanding as a firm and increasing its popularity.

Feminist Thinking Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Feminist Thinking Theory - Essay Example Added to that, U.S. Department of Justice (2000) reported that, around 1.8 million women are being raped and/or assaulted physically by an intimate partner, (statistics not accounting the incidences of psychological abuse). Common reasons for this adversity on domestic violence as discussed by the National Women's Health Resource Center (2009; par 8) often take place as a pattern of behavior or the so called, cycle of violence involving the abuser, the victim and the repeat cycle of violence. The abuser may threaten the victim as the victim works hard to keep the abuser calm; stand on her own belief that, violent incidents can be prevented despite several failures of attempting to fix it which then result to threats or danger of victim's life. The abuser, after the violent incidences, may apologize to the victim and promise not to repeat. As expected, the cycle of violence will again set in motion.

The HafenCity core location has sustainable qualities Essay

The HafenCity core location has sustainable qualities - Essay Example These principles are essential in defining the continuity and integrity of urban designed systems. This eventually would result to the planners having a clue on how to plan and predict urban ecological and socio-economic developments perspectives. Furthermore, it will enhance the harmonization, integrity and mutual consistency with the prediction and urban development documents. Therefore, urban developments that are sustainable should focus on objectives that are long-term. In addition to that, it should address the existing environmental and socio-economic problems existing in the cities and also focus on future preconditions (Vanags and Grizans, 2010, p.1100). Cities are considered to be territorial and socio-economic unit in which economic and business activities are carried out, job opportunities are created, emergence of new technologies occur. Despite the advantages of Hafencity Humbug city expansion, it poses threats to the sustainability of the environment as it will lead to increased population and industrial expansion. In such cases, the demand for urban resources will drastically increase and consequently the amount of waste stream. The urban planners may attempt to provide improvements to the local environment while inadequately addressing issues such as the depletion of the ozone layer and global warming which are characterized by urban behaviour external impacts. Thus, in such a context, urban sustainable development should be perceived as a wider goal of integral ingredient, working towards achieving a sustainable global development. These goals are veered towards the promotion of inter-generational equity, geographical equit y, social justice and environmental stewardship (Haughton 1997, p.193). In addition to that, the documents used to formulate city strategies are wide and might ignore important information needed to monitor the

Social media critical analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Social media critical analysis - Essay Example There are several instances where differences arise in the way people perceive others, something that has resulted in ethnicity, racism and other perspectives that carry negative impacts and connotations. This paper examines the issue of racism and ethnic connotations that are continually becoming the main agenda across social media and other platforms in the society. It focuses on how these thoughts and perspectives are taking toll on the society and the perceived implications they are creating, as well as steps being taken to create a cross-cultural social platform. In our contemporary society, ethnicity is standing out as the cause of disagreements across human societies. Our society penalizes people that openly talk about racial issues; these gaps provide perfect grounds upon which honest conversations effecting their particular communities are raised (Miller 3), this statement continues to elicit mixed reactions across many platforms. Currently, marketers across the business world are realizing the need to make objective communications in order to attract clients that have different origins in terms of their ethnic affiliations, race and preferences. This is because; businesses create products that are destined to fulfill the needs of all people in the society irrespective of their differences. This has yielded efforts and strategies in creating a non-polarized media that appeals to all the needs of the different groups of people for all the good reasons. While marketers have been making efforts in dropping their long-held traditional ethnic media, they are scrambling to establish a platform that is cross-cultural, and lacking ethnic connotations. These efforts are expected to eliminate the hate and related outcomes that are often brought about by ethnic connotations and perspectives that people hold in the physical societies that we live in. Currently, people want to be associated with others of their own race, ethnicity,

The Toxicity of Nanomaterials Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Toxicity of Nanomaterials - Dissertation Example In this regard I would indicate that nanotechnology is an activity that involves manipulation measurement, modeling or manufacture of a sub-100 nanometer while nanomaterials are nanomaterials are materials identified to be of one dimension (Powell & Kanarek 2006, 16). Effects and Toxicity of Nanomaterials Nanotoxicology is an analysis of toxicity of nanomaterials. As a result of the many uses acquired from nanomaterials it has been argued that since nanomaterials are beneficial, the properties can be toxic and dangerous to the cell environment of an organism. This therefore proves that such behavior of properties can easily react with the body tissues which may cause harm and damage of body organs, such as the brain. When such substances are inhaled and enter the internal human organs such as the heart and the lungs, they are likely to cause breathing difficulties in an individual. This shows that nanomaterials have toxins that may be harmful to the life of an organism. The high leve l of surface to volume ratio of atoms to react with other available orgasms suggests that these nanomaterials can react ferociously with the body tissues which would lead to a wear and tear of the body. This would lead to several effects in the body that can make the body to stop functioning as a result of this technology. For example, apart from the damage identified in the brain, the fish had a change in their livers which signified a physiological difference as an influence of fullerenes. A similar study was conducted by the National Institute for Environmental Studies in Japan by a researcher Shosaku Kashiwada. The main objective of this study was to investigate the risks of nanomaterials on organisms. Fish was used as a specimen in this study which showed results that the fish had accumulated nanomaterials in their gills intestine and the bloodstream. This has raised worries with the increase of nanomaterials around the globe indicating the need of safety for workers and users. In addition, researchers in Swedish Karolinka institute conducted a study that gave an indication that iron oxide showed DNA damage on the human body. It has been identified that industries have taken much interest in this technology where they have used the nanomaterials in cosmetics. These cosmetics have been used by humans who apply them on their skins, but are thereafter is able to penetrate to the inner tissues of the body (Powell & Kanarek 2006, 17). Nano sized titanium dioxide is a good example because it has properties that enable it to sunscreen when exposed to sunbeams that lead to the activation of oxidation which causes much harm to the DNA in human beings. The above information indicates that nanomaterials have toxic properties that are dangerous to the health and surrounding of an organism. The paper indicates that titanium dioxide has been applied in several fields of human life such as the making of tooth paste, plastics and pharmaceutical products. This has been as a result of its property of being transparent which has contributed in making the factory and consumer items attractive and beautiful. This indicates that the nanoscale objects have posed much danger to

Against Green Energy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Against Green Energy - Essay Example The cost of subsidizing green energy is therefore spread to individual and corporate taxpayers. The economic condition is likely to worsen due to the fact that generational effects of green energy utilize funds that could be pumped into other developmental projects. Green energy subsidies suppress sustainable development goals and objectives. This is more so when these subsidies increase energy consumption. With increased consumption of energy, wastes from such consumption would increase negative effects on the environment. The process is therefore prone to exacerbate harmful energy effects on environmental welfare. Burden to maintain low pollution levels in the environment is likely to increase and government spending doubles in that case (Douglas F, et al. 2000, p.60–66). Subsidies will be made available for green energy, but government and corporate efforts to combat environmental pollution will remain unchanged. Organizational operating costs should not be covered through subsidies. However, this has been the characteristic phenomenon in the use of subsidies. Organizations that formulate green energy projects and want to implement them seeks for subsidies. Rather than assisting companies to implement such projects, the subsidies should be used for the purposes of enhancing accessibility to contemporary sources of energy. The focus should be directed to households whose access to modern sources is limited as well as to those who cannot afford it. Since this is not the case, subsidies for green energy are argued against. World Bank and World Resource Institute have as well argued against subsidies for green energy in the same context (Brown, 2006, p.

Paraphrase Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 14

Paraphrase - Essay Example pattern presents another similar scenario where the aim is to present the items, the services according to the needs, liking and taste of the superiors. The female here in a figurative manner is guided about the requirements expected against her existence and duties to appease the officials. Further, there is a clear talk of bias and non professional like and dislike in the work place. All this is further strengthened by the claims and findings in various forms. These include the findings from the surveys undertaken in the year 2010. These reveal that gender oriented promotions and decisions were in practice. Further, declining trends are seen in terms of women coming forth from the urban parts of the society. The declining rate is nearly up to 16 percent. Peoples university of Beijing revealed that interview short listing trends are largely defined by the gender and the women have a relatively large chance in terms of appointment and getting through. While the gender inequality may be part of any society, in Chinese account the new year festival organized further specified the problem at hand and how it is prevailing in the Chinese

Question 2,6,7 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Question 2,6,7 - Essay Example Firm diversification is a central issue of importance to managers. The research literature on the subject of diversification affirms that over the past two decades the growth in the globalization of markets and products by firms has been tremendous. Globalization as a concept is used often to imply a condition of increased mutual interdependence among nations. The given condition depends on a number of factors. First, there is decreased governmental policy on trade barriers. Second, free international movement of capital across borders. Third, there is high volume of foreign direct investment. Fourth, there is migration of the workforce across the borders. Finally, there is exchange of services and goods among the nations involved in trade. However, despite the recorded increase in diversification by firms, the definite factors that contribute to diversification remain debatable among firm managers. The drivers of a firm’s diversification decision-making process can be explained with the aid of two theoretical frameworks. Namely, the Resource Based View and the Transaction Cost Theory. The resource-based view theory offers an understanding of the choice of industries into which a firm diversifies. According to the theory, a firm is best viewed as a collection of resources that enable it to compete against other firms. The theory suggests that the potential of a firm to gain and maintain a sustained competitive advantage relies on its defined resources (Wierseme, 2008). Firms that have the ability to develop unique and difficult to imitate resources, are more likely to engage in diversification compared to other firms with no such unique and inimitable resources. The transaction cost theory of strategic management also offers an understanding of firms drivers for diversification. The theory holds that firms diversify when the firms’ activities can be performed cheaply within the company,

Ethno Nationalist Terrorism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Ethno Nationalist Terrorism - Essay Example ionalist movement, which Arab states tried to obstruct; the growing conflict between Israel and the Arab countries over water development plans and other issues; and the increasing importance of the Palestine issue in inter-Arab political affairs.2 The PLO immediately became the ground for numerous nationalist campaigns, which were more and more oriented toward attaining autonomy of political activity from the Arab states, besides the major aspiration to liberate Palestine and guarantee the return of hundreds of thousands of Palestinian refugees.3 After the war of 1967, and the accompanying damage to the reputation of Arab states, supervision of the PLO was taken over by autonomous Palestinian political organizations with a more revolutionary agenda than that of the original organizers. These groups have governed the PLO from then on. Fatah, which means ‘conquest’ or ‘liberation’, is the biggest group within the PLO, and the Syrian division headed by Yasir Arafat.4 It became increasingly radical as Israel continuously achieved military success, and more uncompromising about returning territories seized from the Arabs. Even more radical factions formed within the PLO, such as the Palestinian Front for the Liberation of Palestine and the Black September. These factions argued that the best way to force Israel to hand back the occupied territories was through terrorist activities.5 The Islamic Resistance Movement, or, Hamas, was the offspring of the intifada, which signified the onset of the real political resurgence of the Islamic forces in the Gaza Strip and West Bank. Hamas was established in 1987 as a wing of the Muslim Brotherhood, a political and religious group formed in 1928 in Egypt.6 The primary objective of Hamas is to build an Islamic state in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. This objective merges Palestinian national aspiration and Islamist principles. Their ideology is precise on this issue: â€Å"Hamas regards nationalism as part and parcel of

Social Biases Essay Example for Free

Social Biases Essay Dr. Deirdre Teaford Abstract People behave differently toward other culture and groups and discriminate in many forms of social bias. These biases can impact harshly an individuals career and social life. Discrimination, prejudice, and stereotypes can influence adversely an individuals quality of life. The concept is more prevalent in society that most people realize. This problem could be unfavorable to group cohesion, cooperation, and the success of society. Humans prefer to go with the flow of a crowd. When an idea is chosen by the masses (an entire nations or a small group), the individualized brain enters a kind of hive mind mentality. This causes social norms and behaviors to propagate among the individuals regardless of the evidence in support. This type of social bias is built with the desire to conform or fit in. Social biases have been a barrier humans have experienced from generation to generation. They take short cuts to make sense of the world. Humans have made rash decisions or discriminatory practices based on gender, race, ethnicity, religious affiliation, political preferences, and socioeconomic tatus. Humans have become fallible and has been subjected to their many flaws by making errors in Judgment, memory, and social attribution. Social psychologists have claimed these biases can be eliminated if the individuals have the motivation and capacity to change their attitude. According to Fiske (2010), Some people think bias is a thing of the past, and others think it is a real and present danger that targets diverse social groups (p. 28). Moreover, there are subtle and obvious misunderstandings among groups of individuals that affects the bias of people in heir lives, but strategies for change are possible (Fiske, 2010). In this analysis, the concept of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination will be defined. In the same aspect, the analysis will describe the differences between blatant and subtle bias while identifyi ng some common biases that may affect the lives of individuals and Stereotyping, and Discrimination Gender and ethnic stereotypes are inevitable. In the context of affirmative action, the inevitability has played an important practical implication. One arguments against affirmative action is that employers and educational administrators should be ender-blind and colorblind in their hiring and recruiting process (Stewart, Weeks, Lupfer, 2003). Individuals are often hurt by discriminatory and prejudicial behaviors and attitudes. The current laws cannot halt prejudicial or stereotyping attitudes, but they can address instances of discrimination. Discrimination, stereotyping, and prejudice are somewhat similar, but they are very different. Prejudice The operational definition involves reacting fervently to an individual on the basis of ones feelings about the group (Fiske, 2010). It is a belief that formulated without considering the facts. It is also an unwarranted or negative attitude toward a person based on his or her association of a social group. Stereotyping The operational definition entails an individuals cognitive associations and expectations about a group. These expectations will encompass the beliefs about the characteristics of a group (Fiske, 2010). Moreover, it is an indiscriminate belief about a class of people or particular group. Advantage: It allows the individual to respond hastily to certain situations because he or she may had a related experience. Disadvantage: It will make us ignore the differences between people. Discrimination The operational definition involves acting on the basis of ones prejudices and stereotypes, rebuffing equality of treatment that individuals wish to have (Fiske, 2010). Moreover, it is the negative behavior, or actions toward a group of people or individual on the basis of social/race/gender class. In this context, discrimination can be either blatant or subtle. Subtle and Blatant Bias In the last two decades, there is no doubt that women have made strides in the fight for equality. Many can recognize that women have overcome the many prejudices against their participation in the workforce (Earnshaw, 1993). In our society, blatant bias is being replaced by subtle bias to decrease the broad- mindedness for obviously biased behavior. Subtle bias is also acknowledged as modern prejudice. This does not mean that women do not get discriminated at work even though they have achieved equality of opportunity (Earnshaw, 1993). The first generation bias was more hostile towards women who needed to be in home with the children. On this second generation bias, for example, women may get more narrative praise than the male co-workers but low rating point related to Job performance (Earnshaw, 1993). Subtle Bias This particular modern bias is indirect and is manifested by withholding respect and sympathy. It is ambiguous and sometimes involves positive and hostile feelings that can cause extreme responses (Fiske, 2010). Blatant Bias This old-fashioned bias ensues as a result of threats to the struggle for positive group identity. They include segregation, physical attack, extermination, avoidance, opinion clearly in regard to a particular individual or group. Impact of Social Bias The lives of individuals can be influenced by social biases. Negative outcomes like neglect, hostile environment, or avoidance may be created by discrimination. When a biased individual interacts with an outgroup members, the expressed behavior of the individual will solicit negative and ill attitudes. Prejudice will influence the individuals lives with instances of ageism, sexism, and racism that will affect their career and social life. According to Vaish, Grossman, and Woodward (2008), When adults display a negative bias across an array of psychological situations, they will use the negative information instead of the positive one (p. 383). Moreover, the negativity bias may serves as an evolutionary adaptive purpose of helping individuals afely explore and examine the environment to avoid harmful situations (Vaish et. al. , 2008). Two Strategies to Overcome Social Biases There are several strategies to minimize social biases, such as affirmative action, and equal opportunity laws. The majority of these strategies involve constant intergroup contact. The key term for a biased individual is change. Old habits die hard but and individual can break those habits. According to Fiske (2010), Intergroup contact and mutual differentiation are two possible strategies to minimize the bias. Intergroup Contact These are interactions between members of different social groups. During the contact, there is equal status in the groups, there are common goals, and there is no competition but cooperation. They are not easy to meet, but they make complete sense (Fiske, 2010). Mutual Differentiation In this context, mutual differentiation is important for two reasons: (1) People retain awareness of individuals social identity in the contact situation, and (2) Individuals seem typical in the sense that they represent their own groups (Fiske, 2010). In Conclusion The motivation of change is the key to steer away from social biases. The bias will be the individuals preference toward a peculiar way of viewing or thinking omething. This behavior will be influenced by a certain prejudice.

Reflection on the Concept of Therapeutic Presence

Reflection on the Concept of Therapeutic Presence Tony Fowler â€Å"I am inclined to think that in my writing I have stressed too much on the three basic conditions (congruence, unconditional positive regard and emphatic understanding). Perhaps it is something around the edges of those conditions that is really the most important element of therapy – when myself is very clearly obviously present’ (Rogers cited in Baldwin, 2013a p.28) It has been implied through quantum physics, that on a molecular level, everyone exists within a virtual sea of energy (Gribben, 1984; Pert, 1997), and that each individual contributes to that energy field, by both affecting and being affected by everything and everyone around them, simply by being present. In an interview with Michele Baldwin towards the end of his life, Carl Rogers stated that he had become more aware of his use of ‘self’ within the therapeutic environment and that when he was intensely focused on his client, his presence alone instigated the healing process (Baldwin, 2013a). It is widely accepted that Carl Rogers is considered to be one of the most influential cofounders of the humanistic psychotherapy movement with the development of his person centred approach to counselling clients, and I feel that this was a very bold and courageous statement to have made at this point in his career. When this statement is viewed in relation to his much publicised earlier work, where he wrote about the importance of the six therapeutic conditions, I feel that this statement, like many others humanistic practitioners, appeared to be a change of direction and philosophy for him. In his early career Rogers put particular emphasis on the three primary core conditions, congruence, unconditional positive regard and empathic understanding stating that these were all that was required for a successful therapeutic outcome (Rogers, 1957), Presence has been considered to be a quality that arises when the therapist is present to what is happening in the right here and now. For myself, I am inclined to agree with the views of Martin Buber, from whom much of the Gestalt philosophy of therapy has stemmed from his ‘I-thou’ relationship, that presence is more than just being in the present (Greenberg and Geller, 2001). I am inclined to believe that this it was Rogers was referring to when he spoke of his simply ‘being present’ as the means to facilitating a healing outcome. Is it then that presence is more than the necessary conditions required for a successful therapeutic outcome to take place or that as Rogers suggested, something more around the edges of these conditions that is the primary element within the counselling relationship (Baldwin, 2013a)? Geller and Greenberg (2012 p.7) define therapeutic presence as â€Å"the state of having one’s whole self in the moment on a multiplicity of levels, physically, emotionally, cognitively and spiritually†. This statement shows much duplicity to the original ideas of another proponent of the importance of the relationship between client and therapist, Sandor Ferenczi. He advocated that therapists should possess both an interpersonal and emotional attitude of tenderness, an emotional ambiance where personal caring can create a healing environment decades before Rogers first introduced us to his person centred approach (Hoffman, 2003). It has been argued that in order for the effects of presence to be fully beneficial, preconceptions, judgements and even beliefs cannot co-exist within the present moment. Buber claims that the healing relationship between client and therapist is naturally unequal and one sided, as the client is always looking to the therapist for guidance (Baldwin, 2013b). Whilst I think this argument is true, I also believe that therapeutic presence is made up of both the unspoken and unseen connection between therapist and client that can occur within a therapeutic intervention. It involves the embracement of all core conditions, being empathetic, congruent and having unconditional positive regard for your client. It is about creating a connection with our clients, whilst maintaining one’s own boundaries and not taking on the client’s sense of frustration, anxiety, pain, or grief. Rogers maintained that how a client sees him, whether as a professional therapist, father figure or friend, it mattered not. What was important was to hear, accept and recognise the feelings that the client was experiencing (Baldwin, 2013a). Once again I am in agreement with these views, and feel that when we sense, feel and listen to our clients, as well as to ourselves, we will eventually become more in tune with what is arising between ourselves and the client, allowing for a greater potential for healing to take place. However, this change in Rogers’s beliefs appeared to be almost a reversal of where he had always stood, having had such a profoundly different viewpoint to that of the more traditional psychoanalysts of his time, in regards to the issue of transference. In fact it is true to say that throughout his professional career he denounced the psychoanalytical notion of transference and counter transference as sophisticated devices with the potential to inhibit any real exploration of feelings between therapist and the client (Thorne, 2012) and that there was no reason to make a big deal of it (Baldwin, 2013a). As a result, I do agree with some critics of Roger’s new position, especially in light of his new stance on the effects of presence. Rogers stated that when a certain level of presence is reached, an intense intimacy is achieved between the client and himself and this results in a flow of energy between himself and the client. These claims have been considered by many critics as Rogers describing an almost a spiritual effect, which I am in total agreement with and inclined to consider this as both arrogant and mystical in nature. I am once again drawn to the similarities between Rogers and that of the earlier work of Sandor Ferenczi. Ferenczi, who despite being labelled a psychoanalyst and someone who was once a close personal friend to Freud himself, became disenchanted with Freud’s perspective on the role of clients within the therapeutic session. As a result he went on to develop his own therapeutic approach on the importance of developing the relationship between client and therapist. It is this concept that influenced other significant cofounders of the humanistic psychological movement that followed, such as Abraham Maslow, Rollo May and James Bugental, and in turn Rogers himself with the development of his own Person Centred Approach (Hoffman, 2003). Throughout humanistic approaches such as within existential therapy, presence is seen as a fundamental principle of the therapeutic process, considered by many to be central at effecting change (May, 1958; Bugental, 1987; Yalom, 2002). Within existentialism, it is believed that presence plays a pivotal role in the development of both a safe environment and an intimate therapeutic relationship. Bugental and Yalom, believed the conception of being present with your client included but went beyond the experiencing of a deep connection with the self and the other. They claimed that each person is not only related to self, to other and to the physical world, but also to each person’s past and present in the here-and-now. (Bugental, 1999; Yalom, 1980, 2002) I find this viewpoint again almost spiritual in nature, yet subtly different to the implied spiritualistic nature of Rogers claims. I can almost sense an empiricalistic scientific desire to justify what presence actually is and how it can be achieved by the existentialists. Given Rogers theological beginnings before embarking on a more empirically based career path, I can almost understand his later life reflections on what presence was to him. However, I have to agree with other critics that his implied spiritualistic view and comments of energies that flow between therapist and client that may come from a higher transcendent place, as opinions of a more personal nature and not those that should be taken seriously by the more empirically minded practitioners of today (Thorne, 2012). In a qualitative study by Mick Cooper (2005), the relational depth, which was defined as a profound feeling of contact and engagement with another, was investigated through a series of interviews with person centred therapists. The results of his research found that relational depth can be conceptualised as a form of ‘co-presence’ or a co-experiencing of the person-centred ‘core conditions’. Is this empirical confirmation of Roger’s statement? He himself stated that he believed that a healing outcome resulted not from an emphasised use of the core conditions, but it was possibly something more encompassing, an amalgamation of all the core elements. As an acknowledgement of what presence is and what its effects are, I find compelling evidence within this study. Those therapists who participated in the study, Cooper (2005) interviewed, stated that they had experienced heightened feelings of empathy, acceptance and receptivity towards their clients along with a greater level of awareness, aliveness and satisfaction. He also claimed that when the therapists were having these feelings they also experienced their clients as being highly transparent, being able to articulate core concerns and being able to reciprocate the therapist’s acknowledgement of them. What makes these results so compelling is that they also support the findings and experiences that were described in Geller and Greenberg’s (2002) research on presence. Although it is debatable as to which therapeutic orientation the notion of presence belongs, there can be no doubt that the humanistic tradition has emphasised presence as crucial to therapeutic change. However, cultivating presence is an ongoing practice. It is seen by some as a factor of therapy more important than the acquisition of academic knowledge or the mastery of particular skills set. Yet I believe that through continued use of the core conditions as laid down by Rogers’s person centred approach, we as practitioners have the methods at hand, to invite more presence into the therapy room and therefore become more helpful to our clients. In conclusion I truly believe that having presence is attuning to what is. If one can achieve this then a resonance will occur between us and our clients, which will ultimately lead to the manifestation of trust within the therapeutic relationship. What will we get out of this sense of presence? Will we experience openness to what is? Or acquire the ability to listen to our clients more deeply? Maybe; and maybe as Sandor Ferenczi first suggested, there will naturally arises a greater emotional connection between ourselves and the client with an emphasis on empathetic presence within the therapeutic milieu. Reference List Baldwin, D. C., 2013b. Some philisophical and psychological contributions to the use of self in therapy. In: M. Baldwin, ed. The use of self in therapy. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, pp. 64-80. Baldwin, M., 2013a. Interview with Carl Rogers on the use of self therapy. In: M. Baldwin, ed. The use of self in therapy. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, pp. 28-35. Bugental, J. F. T., 1987. The art of the psychotherapist. New York: Norton. Bugental, J. F. T., 1999. Psychotherapy isnt what you think. Phoenix, AZ: Zeig, Tucker Theisen. Cooper, M., 2005. Therapists experiences of relational depth: A qualitative interview. Counselling and Psychotherpay Research, 5(2), pp. 87-95. Geller, S. M. and Greenberg, L. S., 2002. Therapeutic presence: Therapists experience of presence in the psychotherapy encounter. Person-Centered and Experiential Psychotherapies, 1(12), pp. 71-86. Geller, S. M. and Greenberg, L. S., 2012. Therapeutic presence; a mindful approach to effective therapy. Washington DC: American Pysgological Association. Greenberg, L. S. and Geller, S. M., 2001. Congruence and therapeutic presence. In: G. Wyatt, ed. Rogers therapeutic conditions: Evolution, theory and practice Congruence. Ross on Wye: PCCS Books, pp. 131-148. Gribben, J., 1984. In search of schrodingers cat: Quantum physics and reality. New York: Bantam Books Inc. Hoffman, D., 2003. Sandor Ferenczi and the origins of humanistic psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Volume 43, pp. 59-86. May, R., 1958. Contributions of existential therapy. In: R. May, E. Angel H. Ellenberger, eds. Existance: A new dimension in psychiatry and psychology. New York: Basic Books, pp. 37-91. Pert, C., 1997. Molecules of emotion: Why you feel the way you feel. New York: Simon and Schuster Inc. Rogers, C. R., 1957. The necessary and sufficient condiitons of therapeutic personality change. Journal of Counsulting Psychology, Volume 21, pp. 95-103. Thorne, B., 2012. Counselling and spiritual accompaniment: Bridging faith and Person Centred Therapy. 1st ed. Chichester: John Wiley Sons Ltd. Yalom, I., 1980. Existential Therapy. New York: Basic Books. Yalom, I., 2002. The gift of therapy. New York: Harper Collins.

Advanced Glycation End Products (AGE) for Diabetes

Advanced Glycation End Products (AGE) for Diabetes Diabetes mellitus is a syndrome which defined as a group of metabolic diseases characterized by hyperglycemia, that result from insufficient production of insulin, or body cells poorly respond to the insulin that is produced, or both. Insulin is a hormone produced in the pancreas and secreted in the blood to maintain blood glucose in the body through enables body cells to absorb glucose, to turn into energy. If the body cells enable to absorb the glucose, the glucose will accumulates in the blood (hyperglycemia), leading to many and different potential medical complications (Harmel Mathur, 2004). Diabetes have several categories but the majority of cases fall into two categories which are type 1 diabetes mellitus and type 2 diabetes mellitus. These two types are powerful and highly independent risk factors causing coronary artery disease, stroke, peripheral arterial disease and organ damage and dysfunction including eyes and nerves (Harmel Mathur, 2004). Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: Type 1 diabetes mellitus resulting from pancreas failure to produce insulin hormone. Person at risk of developing type 1 can be identified by doing serologic test markers that showing evidence of autoimmune destruction of beta cells (islet cells) of the pancreas which is responsible for insulin production. Type 1 diabetes is manifested in childhood and early adulthood, but can patient present at any age (Goroll Mulley, 2009). Type 2 diabetes mellitus: Patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus are prone with wide range of series complications. Type 2 is characterized by high blood glucose due to insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency. There are 20.8 million people in United State with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Type 2 diabetes traditionally is seen in elderly people. However it is diagnosed in obese children. Many studies shows that type 2 diabetes mellitus are associated with high calorie diet, physical inactivity and life style (Feinglos Bethel, 2008). Other Types of Diabetes: There are other types of diabetes but they are less common but patients who are underlying defect or disease process can be identified in a relatively specific manner. These types are Genetic defects of beta-cell function, Diseases of the exocrine pancreas e.g Fibrocalculous pancreatopathy, Endocrinopathies and cystic fibrosis and Uncommon forms of immune-mediated diabetes. Diabetes mellitus complications: Diabetic complications can be grouped into macrovascular and microvascular disease. Macrovascular diseases are result from atherosclerosis which develops in earlier age in patient with diabetes. There are several factors contribute to atherosclerosis such as lipidemia, hypertension, increased platelets adhesion and aggregation, elevated factor V, factor VII and fibrinogen concentration. Macrovascular diseases are seen in both type one and two of diabetes mellitus and they include coronary heart disease, Ischemic stroke and peripheral vascular disease (which can lead to ulcers, gangrene and amputation) (Winter Signorino, 2002). Whereas, Microvascular complications is seen in type one diabetes mellitus. Hyperglycemia damages the basement membrane of capillaries in the retina and glomerulars which leads to retinopathy and neuropathy. Microvascular diseases include neuropathy (nerve damage), nephropathy (kidney disease) and vision disorders (eg retinopathy, glaucoma, cataract and corneal disease). Furthermore there are other complications of diabetes include infections, metabolic difficulties, dental disease, autonomic neuropathy and pregnancy problems (Winter Signorino, 2002). Several clinical research show a strong relationship between hyperglacemia and diabetic microvascular complications in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. High glucose and insulin resistance play important roles in the pathogenesis of macrovascular complications due to atherosclerosis. Diabetes-specific microvascular disease in the retina, glomerulus and vasa nervorum has same pathophysiological features. Intracellular hyperglycaemia causes abnormalities in blood flow and increased vascular permeability which leads to decreased activity of vasodilators such as nitric oxide, increased activity of vasoconstrictors such as angiotensin II and endothelin-1, and elaboration of permeability factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) (Brownlee, 2001). There are several factors which contribute the formation of inflammation, atherosclerosis and diabetes mellitus complication. These factors are hyperglycemia, accumulation of advanced glycation endproducts, dyslipidemia and oxidative stress which lead to endothelial dysfunction resulting in thrombotic complications and cardiovascular (Altman, 2003). In type 1 diabetes mellitus, high blood glucose is usually as result of low level of insulin secretion whereas in type2 hyperglycemia is caused by resistance of insulin at the cellular level. Low insulin levels or insulin resistance enable the body to convert glucose into glycogen (a starch-as source of energy which stored in the liver). In type 1 diabetes, pancreatic beta cells are attacked by auto-immune which cause infiltration of inflammatory cells and increased expression and secretion of S100-calcium binding protein and high-mobility group protein 1 (HMGP1) through inflammatory cells which consequently lead to islet damage and increased blood glucose level, subsequent accumulation of AGE (Bierhaus Nawroth, 2009). Comparing to T1D, in type 2 diabetes mellitus, different metabolic disturbances stimulates inflammatory cells to secretes RAGE ligands, which cause low-grade inflammation and increased oxidative and carbonly stress, all these play roles in promoting AGE formation and RAGE expression in respective organs (Bierhaus Nawroth, 2009). Insulin resistance and Inflammation: In diabetic patients with hyperglycemia, cause by 1) impaired insulin secretion by the pancreatic ß-cells, 2) muscle insulin resistance, and 3) hepatic insulin resistance all play central roles in the development and progression of glucose intolerance. As I mention before, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is characterized by insulin resistance in liver and muscle and impaired insulin secretion. Also include deranged adipocyte metabolism and modified fat topography in the pathogenesis of glucose intolerance in T2DM. Fat cells are resistant to insulins antilipolytic effect, which result in increased plasma free fat acid levels. Long period of increasing plasma fat fee acid stimulates gluconeogenesis, promote hepatic and muscle insulin resistance, and impairs insulin secretion in genetically predisposed patients. These pathways of FFA-induced are known as lipotoxicity. Fat cells Dysfunction makes excessive amounts of insulin resistance-inducing, inflammatory, and atherosclerotic-provoking cytokines and fails to secrete normal level of insulin-sensitizing adipocytokines. Enlarged fat cells are insulin resistant and have minimized capacity to store fat. When storage capacity of adipocyte is exceeded, lipid overflows into muscle, liver, a nd perhaps ß-cells, resulting in muscle, hepatic insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion. In type 2 diabetics, the ability of insulin to stop lipolysis and to decrease the plasma FFA levels is markedly impaired. It is clearly that chronic elevated levels of plasma free fat acid leads to insulin resistance in muscle and liver, and impair insulin secretion. In addition to FFA in plasma, increase stores of triglycerides in muscle and liver which correlate closely with the presence of insulin resistance in tissues. The triglycerides in liver and muscle are in a state of constant turnover, and the metabolites of intracellular triglyceride lipolysis impair action of insulin in liver and muscle (Bays et al, 2004). This pathway of events has been referred to as lipotoxicity . The accumulation of lipid in dipocytes leads to activate NADPH oxidase which increases the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The mechanisms increased production of cytokines including TNF-ÃŽ ±, IL-6 and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and reduce the production of adiponectin (Shoelson et al, 2006). Furthermore accumulation of lipid activates the protein response to increased ER stess in fat and liver. All these have accumulated to induce lipotoxicity as an important cause of ß-cell dysfunction (Bays et al, 2004). Receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE): RAGE is type I transmembrane receptor of the immunogloblin superfamily. It is a receptor for advanced glycation endproducts (AGE). It is about 45-KD a protein and it is consist of 403 amino acids in human, rate and mouse. Its extracellular region consists of one V-type (variable) immunoglobulin domina, which followed by two C-type (constant) immunoglobulin dominas (Basta, 2004). Its name drive from its ability to bind AGE and also it is known as AGER. It is located within the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class III region on chromosome 6, which contains numbers of genes involved predominantly in inflammatory and immune responses and several components of complements. Beside AGE, RAGE is able to bind several ligands therefore is called a pattern-recognition receptor. These ligands are high-mobility group protein 1 (HMGP1), S100-calicum binding protein (S100b) which is family of pro-inflammatory cytokines and it can be found in any inflammatory lesion and vascular walls of diabetics patients, amyloid-ß-protein and macrophage-1 glycoprotein (CD11B/CD18). RAGE plays role in diabetes and other metabolic disease. The interaction of RAGE and its ligands cause pro-inflammatory activation. It is involved in several diseases such as innate immune response, mediating immune and inflammatory response, cancer promoting and progressing and microvascular and mi crovascular diseases (Bierhaus Nawroth, 2009). Moreover, RAGE expression is increased in the cells of the vascular walls, at the site where AGEs and S100/calgranulins are accumulated, including endothelium vascular smooth muscle cells, glomerular mesangial cells and mononuclear phagocytes. This destrbution of RAGE and its ligands leads to increased cellular activation, causing further raised expression of the receptor (Basta et al, 2004). Recently the studies have been proved that RAGE and its ligands accumulate in diabetes and contribute to its pathology. Serum levels of S100A8/9 and S100A12 increased in type 2 diabetic patients. Also, evidence was provided by raised serum levels HMGB1 were linked to coronary artery disease in type 2 diabetes. In addition the studies which have been done in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats proved that diabetes increased amyloid-beta-peptide (1-40) levels in the brain. Furthermore, CML-modification of S100A8 and S100A9 are seen in inflammatory bowel disease and promote RAGE-mediated sustained inflammatory. Moreover, Carboxylated N-glycans on RAGE eases binding of HMGB and mediates ligation of S100A8/A9 to subpopulation of RAGE on colon cancer cells (Bierhaus Nawroth, 2009). Advanced Glycation End products (AGE) and its biochemical mechanism production: There are various pathways involved in stimulation of atherosclerosis in diabetes mellitus. However the most important one is formation and deposition of AGEs through nonenzymetic reaction between extracellular protein and glucose and it accumulates within cells of the vascular walls, in the extracellular space, kidney, nerves and retina (Basta et al, 2004). Possible mechanism of AGEs formation arise from intracellular auto-oxidation of glucose to glyoxal, decompounding of the Amadori product (glucose-derived 1-amino 1-deoxyfructose lysine adducts) to 3-deoxyglucosone and fragmentation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate to methylglyoxal. These reactive intracellular dicarbonyls (glyoxal, methylglyoxal and 3-deoxyglucosone) which can react with amino groups of intracellular and extracellular proteins to form AGEs (pyrraline, pentosidine, CML, crossline) (Balasubramanyam et al, 2002). Several experimental studies evidenced that advanced glycation end products can alter vascular wall homeostasis in atherogenic through different ways which are: AGEs and mononuclear phagocytes Interaction: The binding of AGEs with mononuclear phagocytes MPs induces the activation of platelet-derived growth factor, insulin-like growth factor-1, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1ß and TNF-ÃŽ ±. Furthermore the interaction of AGEs with its receptor (RAGE) in the mononuclear phagocytes promotes cell migration (chemotaxis) (Basta et al, 2004). AGEs and vascular smooth muscle cells Interaction: Interaction of AGE with smooth muscle cells (SMCs) exhibits the proliferative activity and production of fibronectin. SMC growth are indirectly mediate by cytokines or growth factors which induced by AGEs in the MPs. Transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) act as an intermediate factor in AGE-induced fibronectin formation by SMC(Basta et al, 2004). AGEs with vascular endothelium Interactions: alterations of vascular permeability and of adhesive properties As result its unique position and numerous properties, the vascular endothelium has important role in the regulation of extracellular permeability, the maintenance of blood fluidity, metabolism of hormones and vasoactive mediators and the regulation of vascular growth and tone. The endothelium is exposed to AGEs located on circulating proteins and cells (such as, diabetic RBCs), also those found in the underlying subendothelial matrix. Receptors for AGEs present on the endothelial cell surface, and mediate both the uptake and AGEs transcytosis, and the internal signal transduction. AGE-RAGE interaction leads to alteration of barrier function and an increased permeability of endothelial cells interact with AGEs and increased migrate of macromolecules through the endothelial monolayer. The increase in permeability is associated by alterations of the physical integrity of the endothelium, as shown by the destruction of structures and alterations of cellular morphology (Basta et al, 2004 ). Also, it has been proved that AGEs cause alterations of endothelial anti-hemostatic functions in vitro, through a reduction of thrombomodulin expression and accompanied with induction of tissue factor expression. The promoting of tissue factor and the decreasing in thrombomodulin activity change the dynamic endothelial features with regard to hemostasis from those of an anticoagulant to those of a procoagulant surface (Basta et al, 2004). Intraction of AGEs with endothelial RAGE also causes the depletion of cellular antioxidant defense mechanisms (such as glutathione, vitamin C) and the generation of reactive oxygen species. As a result of the increased cellular oxidative stress, NF-ÃŽ ºB activation occurs, thus inducing the expression of NF-ÃŽ ºB-regulated genes including, in addition to the procoagulant tissue factor, adhesion molecules, such as E-selectin, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1); this past may prime diabetic vasculature towards enhanced interaction with circulating monocytes. Furthermore, the incubation of endothelial cells with EN-RAGE or S100B results in VCAM-1 induction, in a RAGE-dependent manner, as sustained by the inhibitory effect of anti-RAGE IgG or soluble RAGE (Basta et al, 2004). Alterations of endothelium-dependent vasodilatation AGEs linked to the vascular matrix may quench bioavailability of nitric oxide (NO), which is an important regulator of vascular tone inducing smooth muscle cell relaxation. Studies provided that, AGE inhibits NO activity, when it added to NO in vitro. Studies on animal exterminate induced diabetes show that an alteration of endothelium-dependent dilatation occurs in short period, within 2 months, from diabetes induction. A direct reaction between NO radical and other free radicals which are formed during the reactions of AGEs assumable leads to inactivation of NO. In parallel, advanced glyaction end products promote the expression of the potent vasoconstrictor endothelin-1 changing endothelial function towards vasoconstriction (Basta et al, 2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These four mechanisms promote and alter vascular wall homeostasis. When mononuclear phagocytes migrate to the site of immobilized AGEs in the tissue, their migrations allow them to interact with AGE -modified surface and become activated. This mechanism cause attracting and retaining MPs in tissue where AGEs deposit. Migration and activation of MPs and T cells (inflammatory cells) promote and cause chronic vascular inflammation through alter vessel wall (Basta et al, 2004). Promotion of atherogenesis pathways by AGEs: AGEs are most important factors in endothelial dysfunction in diabetic patients through binding its receptor (RAGE). Advanced Glycation Endproducts stimulate the expression of proinflammatory cells and molecules (Altman, 2003). AGEs can be seriously deleterious to the function of blood vessel walls in various ways. First it causes blood vessel dysfunction through cross bridges among vessel macromolecules. Secondly of damage is that accumulation of AGEs lead circulating blood cells to adhere to the vascular walls which promote atherosclerosis. Third way is through binding different receptors which have been recognized on various cell types such as macrophages, endothelial cells, and smooth muscle cells, renal and neuronal cells (Basta et al, 2004). Hyperglycaemia Mechanisms-caused damage: Hyperglycemia diverse microvascular and macrovascular complications in diabetic patients through several mechanisms such as increased formation and accumlation of advanced glycation end-product (AGE); activation of protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms; and increased generation of reactive oxygen species (Bonke et al,2008) Increased production advanced glycation end-products AGE promote atherogenesis pathway through accumulation of AGEs and AGEs ligation to RAGE on endothelial cells and macrophages induce inflammation through activating pro-inflammatory cytokines including TNF-ÃŽ ±, 1L-6 a L-1ß, induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and through increased oxidative stress which lead to degradation of IKBs (IKBs is normally bound to NF-KB to prevent translocation of NF-KB to nucleus). ROS activates NF-KB which results in translocation of NF-KB to nucleus. Activation of NF-KB cause pathological change of gene expression which is highly related to inflammation, immunity and atherosclerosis, increased expression of inflammatory mediators which lead to insulin resistance and increased RAGE expression as well (Basta et al, 2004). Mechanisms by which intracellular production of advanced glycation end-product (AGE) precursors damages vascular cells. Cellular functions are altered by dicarbonyl advanced glycation end products. Alteration of extracellular matrix proteins results in abnormal interactions with other matrix proteins and with integrins. Alteration of plasma proteins by AGE precursors generate ligands that bind to AGE receptors, inducing conversion of gene expression in endothelial cells, mesangial cells and macrophages. Activation of protein kinase C: The protein kinace C (PKC) family compromises at least eleven isoforms, nine are induced by the lipid second messenger diacylglycerol (DAG). Altered DAG-PKC pathway play an important role in diabetic complications. Intracellular hyperglycaemia raises the amount of DAG which activate PKC in cultured vascular cells and in the retina and renal glomeruli of diabetic animals. Hyperglycaemia may also activate PKC isoforms indirectly by AGEs bind receptors and increased activity of the polyol pathway, possibly through increased reactive oxygen species (ROS). AGE stimulated diacylglycerol (DAG) and activate protein kinase C (PKC) in VSMC. PKC is one of important signal transduction elements involved with multiple cell response. In early studies of diabetes, retinal and renal blood flow abnormalities are due to activation of PKC-ß isoforms perhaps through depressing nitric oxide production or increasing endothelin-1 activity. Abnormal activation of protein kinase C has several pathogenic c onsequences: It leads to decreased production of nitric oxide in smooth muscle cells and glomerular mesangial cells that is induced by hyperglycemia (Brownlee, 2001). Activation of PKC causes inhibition of insulin-stimulated expression of mRNA for endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) in cultured endothelial cells. Hyperglycaemia activates PKC to increased endothelin-1, permeability of endothelia cells and increased expression of the vascular permeability angiogenesis factor (VEGF) in smooth muscle cells (Brownlee, 2001). Increased generation of reactive oxygen species: Increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is another possible pathways of diabetes complications especially nephropathy complication. Production of Reactive oxygen species can be result from the activation of various enzymes, including NADPH oxidase, nitric oxide (NO) synthase, and myeloperoxidase, with arising evidence that NADPH oxidase is the major cytosolic source of ROS generation in diabetes. NADPH has homologues that are present within the kidney, namely nox-3, seen in fetal kidney, and nox-4, which is predominately expressed in the renal cortex. AGE bind RAGE induces signal transduction and activate NADPH oxidase in endothelial cells. The interaction between AGE-RAGE enhances production of the cytokine vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which is directly induced by NADPH oxidase and is associated with the pathogenesis of albuminuria in diabetes (Bonke et al, 2008). Diabetes mellitus control and treatment: Both type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus are characterized by elevated blood glucose level due to insufficiency of insulin level. Therefore, diabetes patients need to reduce blood glucose level through healthy diet, drugs such as (hypoglycemic tablets and anti-atherosclerosis drugs), insulin injection and regular physical exercise. Healthy Diet: In general, healthy diet for diabetes patients should include: limit fats (especially saturated fats and trans-fat acid), proteins and cholesterol. Also, patient should consume a lot of fiber and vegetables. Patients with insulin-producing or insulin synthesis treatment should monitor their blood glucose level to avoid hyperglycemia. For example, adults and teenager patients should maintain their blood glucose level between 80-120 mg/dl, and 100-200 mg/dl for children under 12 year old. Type 1 diabetes patients should test their blood glucose level four to more per day. However, in type 2 diabetes, patients recommend to measure blood glucose level 1 to 2 times daily, because glucose level in type 2 diabetes is more stable than in type 1. Such important tests are important during diet plans and treatment. For example, glycosylated hemoglobin test (HbA1 c) is an indicator for carbohydrate level. Micro and macroalbuminuria indicates of the proteinuria and renal function, for instance if the teat showed high level of proteinuria then the patient need to lowering protein intake (Flaws et al, 2002). Exercise: Physical exercise is important to manage diabetes complications. Regular exercise improves the status of both type 1 and 2 diabetes through transporting sugar to muscles, improving blood circulation, and increasing insulin receptors. Exercise has specific effects on diabetes patients include: reducing blood glucose level during and after exercise, increased insulin sensitivity, reduced triglyceride level and increased good cholesterol (HDL) (Flaws et al, 2002). However, diabetes patients may have several risks associated with exercise which include: hypoglycemia if patient under treatment with hyperglycemia agents, hyperglycemia and ketosis in insulin-deficient patients, and exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Therefore, patients who are over 30 year old should be examined before doing physical exercise. These examinations include: cardiovascular exams such as blood pressure, blood lipid and ECG, and neurological evaluation such as eye exam (Flaws et al, 2002). Anti-inflammatory drugs Various drugs in recent clinical practice have been used as anti-inflammatory agents such as thiazolidinedione (TZD) class of PPARÃŽ ³ agonists and members of statin class of HMG CoA reductase inhibitors. Both of them have importane anti-inflammatory properities and both have action on glucose homeostasis and cholesterol redusing (Shoelson et al, 2006). TZDs are used to induced insulin sensivity and decresed hyperglicemia in patient with type 2 diabetes mellitus. TZDs drugs inculde pioglitazone, rosiglitazone and troglitazone. The role of TZDs is through binding and activiting PPARÃŽ ³ to induce a number of gene expression products in a dipocyte. TZDs action are attributed to fatty acid in the a dipose tissue. TZD decreases circulating free faty acid and keep faty acid out of musle and liver because accumalte of fatty acide in these tissue lead to insulin resistance. In addition, PPARÃŽ ³ is not only present in dipocyte but also in it is expressed in macrophages and other immune cells response, hepatocyte, endothelial cells and vascular smooth mucsle cells (VSMC). TZD play role in reduce the expression of targets gene for cytokines, growth factors, proliferation and migration of cells, and cell cycle progression (Shoelson et al, 2006). Rosigliatozone: Rosigliatozone decreses the inflammatory markers such as serum C-reactive protein, metalloproteinase-9, white blood cell, tumer necrosis factor-ÃŽ ± and serum amyloid-A in type two diabetes mellitus (Altman, 2003). Group of studies done on Diabetes Rodents: The recent research has demonstrated that rosiglitizone, a PPARÃŽ ³ agonist, attenuates diabetes associated atherosclorosis. The reaserch has studied the direct antiathersclosis effects of PPARÃŽ ³ afer long beriod of therapy in an experiment of insulin deficiency. This study show that rosiglitezone has no effect on glucose level in both control or diabetes mice. However, rosiglitizone , PPARÃŽ ³ (acting as insulin sinstiser) significally decresed plasma insulin level in control mice (Calkin et al, 2005). In addition to Calkin study and his collegous, another study shows that rosiglitazone increase the insulin content and iselt cells number and total mass of pancreas in diabetes rats. However, it is unknown if this is adirect effect of rsiglitazone by activation of PPARÃŽ ³ mediated pathway in islets or indirect effect of normalizing the hyperglicemia (Sanchez et al, 2002). Increaesd secration rate of proinsulin relative to insulin is one oa acommon feature in type 2 diabetes mellitus. The normal range of proinsulin in normal subjects is about 2 to 4% of the total amount of insulin and in type 2 diabetes proinsulin rate is about 15%. Curently the studies has been demonstrated that rosiglitazone in type 2 diabetes decrease proinsulin secretion. Proinsulin has been associated with activity of carboxypeptidase E. Fricker and collegous have evidenced that carboxypeptidase are present in secretory pathway and participate in peptide processing. CarboxypeptidaseB has similler feature as carboxypeptidaseE but the precursor sequence of carboxypeptidaseB has been seen in an adult mouse islet cells. Thus suggest that rosiglitazone may has primery effect on increasing the expression of carboxypeptidaseB precursor protein resulting in increse proinsulin to insulin conversion (Sanchez et al, 2002). Further more, rosiglitizone did not affect fasting insluin level in diabetic mice due to streptozotocin which induce insulin insufficency. Also, another group of study has curently demonstrated that short period of treatment with rosiglitizone decreased plaque area in diabetic mice but had no determination if effects seen were linked to insulin sensitization (Calkin et al, 2005). More current sutdies have evedanced that rosiglitezone treatment in diabetes mice reduce gene expression of the NF-KB subunit p65. Further study has shown that rosiglitizone has no direct effect o glucose-induce upregulation of oxidative stress. Same study had investigated RAGE expression acording to preveious finding that first of all, RAGE expression increse oxidative stress and secondly rosiglitezone which used in culture media alter RAGE expression. The study had shown, the expression of RAGE gene wasnt altered by rosiglitizone (Calkin et al, 2005). Some study showed no significant alteretion in gene expression after TZDs treatment. This is because of almost studies were not preformed in human adipose tissue in vivo but they used adipose tissue of rodents and adipocyte cell line. Actually under such study we should consider about some facts that, for example rosiglitazone dose which used in rodents study (10 mg/kg) is higher than human dose about 100-fold. furthermore, TZD may has an action on gene expressed in rodents but it is not necessarily to has same action on human gene. For example carbonic anhydrase 3 protein raised 2-fold after treated the mice with rosiglitazone, however there was no increasing in carbonic anhydrase 3 mRNA in human adipocyte. Although there were similarities in the action of TZD-induced insulin sensitivity, there may be TZD action has different mechanisms on experimental models and human (Kolak et al,2007). Therfore, Im going to discuss about the studies which have been done on human adipose tissue and there findings. Group of studies done in human patient with type 2 diabetes: Overactivity of ubiquitin-proteasome system is associated with the inflammation and atherosclerotic plaques in type 2 diabetes. Study by Marfella and his colegous on human diabetes patients has been shown that the PPAR-ÃŽ ³ agonist rosiglitazone reduce ubiquitin-proteasome activity and thuss prevent plaque progression to unstable phenotype in diabetes individulas (Marfella et al, 2006). Also, same study shows, the production of O2- by monocytes is reduced after rosiglitazone treatment. Thus proteasome reduction is induced by inhibition of oxidative stress and polyubiquitination. As oxidative stress induce insulin resistence through NF-kB activation, rosiglitazone enhance insulin sensivity and plaque stability in diabetes patien through reducing oxidative stress and ubiquitin-proteasome activity. Further possibility that, NF-KB activation is inhibited by rosiglitazone through a PPAR-ÃŽ ³ independent pathway. PPAR-ÃŽ ³ agonist inhibits NF-KB translocation and subsequent DNA binding through inhibits immune response which induce degradation of IKBs (Marfella et al, 2006). Rosiglitazone have significant effects on metabolism of faty acid and lowering circuliting non-esterified fatty acid. Therfore rosiglitazone prevent islet cells through reducing fatty acid exposure (Sanchez et al, 2002) Kolak and his colleagues investigated the gene of expression in human adipose tissue in vivo in type two diabetes mellitus, befor and after tratment with rosigliatozone and metformin. Reosigliatozone modulates expression of gene which involved in free faty acid synthesis and storage, protein strcture, inflammatory cells inculde macrophage and gene associated in glucose transport and insulin sensivity. Whereas metformin has no effect on these gene (Kolak et al, 2007). TZD decrease the expression of RAGE endothelial protien. From preveious finding, TNF-ÃŽ ± increase the expression of RAGE on endothelial cells, so

The Sound and the Fury by William Faulkner Essay -- Slavery The Sound

The Sound and the Fury by William Faulkner One of the main realities of human existence is the constant, unceasing passage of time. The Sound and the Fury by William Faulkner explores this reality of time in many new and unexpected ways as he tells the tragic tail of the Compson family. The Compsons are an old Southern aristocratic family to whom time has not been kind. Years of degeneration mainly stemming from slavery have brought them to the brink of destruction. Most of the story focuses on the Compson children who are undergoing the worst of the social and moral decay. Each of the four children perceives time in a much different way but by far the strangest and most bizarre attitude toward time that is given in the text is held by one of the three male children, Quentin. He is totally consumed with his past and at times can think of nothing else. He also becomes determined to stop time itself—a futile effort that will eventually force him to take his own life. Quentin’s obsession with the past and with the passage of time is a central theme of not only the Quentin section but of the entire book, and it is the key to understanding what Faulkner is trying to say about the decay of Southern culture and traditions. To fully understand the motif of time in the Quentin section it is first necessary to compare it with the different ways in which Faulkner uses time in the other three sections. The first section is narrated by the mentally retarded brother, Benjy, who has abs...

The Ewell Residence in To Kill a Mockingbird :: Kill Mockingbird essays

The Ewell Residence in To Kill a Mockingbird In To Kill a Mockingbird, Harper Lee gives us a very detailed description of Robert Ewell, his family, and how he lives. A good example is the passage in which Robert Ewell testifies in the Tom Robinson Trial. This is a description of the Ewell's home as well as an insight into the Ewells themselves. We learn what kind of a father Robert is and the kind of life into which he has forced his eldest daughter, Mayella. We also see how the county of Maycomb cruelly discriminates against the black community even though they are more respectable than people like the Ewells. Lee uses such detail in the account of the Ewell cabin because the best way to understand the Ewells is to understand how they live. For example, she states, "The cabin's plank walls were supplemented with sheets of corrugated iron, its general shape suggested it's original design: square, with four tiny rooms opening onto a shotgun hall, the cabin rested uneasily upon four irregular lumps of limestone. Its windows were merely open spaces in the walls, which in the summer were covered with greasy strips of cheese cloth to keep out the varmints that feasted on Maycomb's refuse." This description paints a very vivid picture of the cabin and also tells a little bit about the Ewells themselves. From this we can infer that the Ewells took very little (if any at all) pride in their home and it's appearance. Later in the passage Lee adds, "What passed for a fence was bits of tree limbs, broomsticks and tool shafts, all tipped with rusty hammer heads, shovels, axes and grubbing hoes, held on with pieces of barbed wire." By now it is apparent that the only household repairs the Ewells make are with things they find at the dump. The image Lee is trying to form of these people is made very obvious by her use of details. The passage also gives quite a bit of insight into Mr.Ewell himself. For example, Lee states, "The varmints had a lean of it, for the Ewells gave the dump a thorough gleaning every day^Å" This statement informs us that the Ewells main source of revenue is form the town dump.

The Neurologist :: Neurology Brain Medical Essays

The Neurologist Language is a vital part of both verbal and non-verbal communication. Each of us uses language everyday in a variety of ways. When our language skills are in jeopardy, it can affect our entire lives. The consequences of a loss of language can be more restricting then that of loss of sight or hearing. Communication is a matter of survival and independence, without it ones life will change drastically. There is almost complete agreement that there are four main language areas in the left cerebral hemisphere of most people. Two of these areas are considered receptive while the other two carry out the actual task. These two receptive areas take on very different tasks, one involving the perception of written language and the other of spoken language. The area that helps to regulate written language is located in the angular gyrus, while the other occupies the Heschl’s gyri. Although language and speech are usually considered synonymous functions, this is not the case in all aspects of their roles. Unlike an impairment of speech, language impairment always occurs due to an abnormality of the cerebral hemisphere. Speech on the other hand may be effected by the same sort of abnormality but it also can be effected by damage to other parts of the brain. Loss of communication and language can be a result of damage to the temporal lobe of the brain. The type of language loss is dependent of what specific area of the temporal lobe has been damaged. Possible types of damage to the brain can be a lesion or a tumor. It is the job of the neurologist to locate the area of damage and to assess the level of impairment. Neurologist use a variety of test to asses the possible damage to the brain or spinal cord including CAT scans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and a wide variety of functional, skill assessments. One of the most popular verbal memory assessments used in the field is the Wechsler Memory Scale, the most recently revised version has been a useful tool for neurologist to determine severity and location of the temporal damage. One of the first signs of a lesion to the temporal lobe is The Neurologist :: Neurology Brain Medical Essays The Neurologist Language is a vital part of both verbal and non-verbal communication. Each of us uses language everyday in a variety of ways. When our language skills are in jeopardy, it can affect our entire lives. The consequences of a loss of language can be more restricting then that of loss of sight or hearing. Communication is a matter of survival and independence, without it ones life will change drastically. There is almost complete agreement that there are four main language areas in the left cerebral hemisphere of most people. Two of these areas are considered receptive while the other two carry out the actual task. These two receptive areas take on very different tasks, one involving the perception of written language and the other of spoken language. The area that helps to regulate written language is located in the angular gyrus, while the other occupies the Heschl’s gyri. Although language and speech are usually considered synonymous functions, this is not the case in all aspects of their roles. Unlike an impairment of speech, language impairment always occurs due to an abnormality of the cerebral hemisphere. Speech on the other hand may be effected by the same sort of abnormality but it also can be effected by damage to other parts of the brain. Loss of communication and language can be a result of damage to the temporal lobe of the brain. The type of language loss is dependent of what specific area of the temporal lobe has been damaged. Possible types of damage to the brain can be a lesion or a tumor. It is the job of the neurologist to locate the area of damage and to assess the level of impairment. Neurologist use a variety of test to asses the possible damage to the brain or spinal cord including CAT scans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and a wide variety of functional, skill assessments. One of the most popular verbal memory assessments used in the field is the Wechsler Memory Scale, the most recently revised version has been a useful tool for neurologist to determine severity and location of the temporal damage. One of the first signs of a lesion to the temporal lobe is

Campare and Contraste Essay

In his article â€Å"Driving While Stupid,† Dave Barry shares his experience of bad drivers. He talks about many scenarios that are taking place in many places. He first starts by stating that downtown Miami is home to the worst drivers. He claims that although some may try to say otherwise, that there is no way to compete with Miami on the worst driver scale. Barry backs up his clam by giving examples of how he has driven in every major U.S. city as well as in Italy, where there is only one traffic law, in an Argentinean city of Mar del Plata, literally meaning â€Å"Cover your  eyes,† and in China, where buses ‘encourage’ people to get out of the way. He says he has seen many insane drivers and situations, but that didn’t stop him from being surprised with one of his own experiences; the night when a driver in a convertible on the interstate I-95 was weaving back and forth going maybe 600 miles per hour. The observation Barry makes is that the driver was watching a music video on a video screen installed in his sun visor. Barry goes on to say that there are many drivers who distract themselves by cell phones, reading, eating, etc, while driving, but at least, unlike the guy on the interstate, they are able to see the road from time to time. The level of comedy that Barry used in his article is high. By using deliberate and obvious exaggeration and sarcasm to convey the fact that drivers should pay more attention to the road, and less to other crazy activities.

Do You Like Surprises ? Why?

To be affect is for the move of bearing to reach you personally, to be a participant in the unpredictability of action, for better or for worse. To never be impress is to live(a) an incredibly sheltered life, or to be completely insensitive to the ebb and flow of live around you. I oft like to be surprise so far from the childhood. My surprises come just on vacations such(prenominal) as St. Nicholas or Santa Claus.I regain when my parents act for years to make for us my holiday surprises, like putting at cull tree or in boots versatile gifts that always surprises me with joy. Lately, when I got married my save was the one who started to make for me different surprises, surprised me with things material or spiritual. I remember with nostalgia, when I was kid looking anterior to the winter holidays? to receive gifts. I wipe out long believed in Santa Claus a holiday and in holy Romanian Orthodox calendar, where it comes my name Nicoleta.I sleep together to a greater e xtent than Santa Claus because my florists chrysanthemum always surprises me with gifts twice. Once she put it in my shoes toy, candy, and later surprised me with cake, cookies, and we fete a birthday with neighbors children or from school that were my guests surprise. Nowadays, although I grew up with my mother surprised with call or gifts when we are closed. My keep up the second person in my life who conquered surprises me is my husband. He fell in love with me since the first moment of surprise.We have met on the Internet, and the first surprise that I did it subsequently two months of online conversation was coming to Romania to bump me. Of course, he came laden with gifts for the whole family, although we do not knew very substantially. I eyeshot he was a nice gesture and I took it as a charity. another(prenominal) surprise was when he comeback beside time with Engagement ring and he asked me to be his wife. However, after that come more, and more surprises from his p art and my life became changes. In conclusion, I like to make surprises as well as to accept them,